When trauma is delivered independently of responding to adult dogs, rats and humans, adaptive behavior is disrupted: motivation to respond is undermined, ability to associate response with reinforcement is undermined, and heightened emotionality ensues. Such disruption is called "learned helplessness" and it has been proposed as a model of reactive depression in man. This proposal has two general aims: to explore the effects of helplessness developmentally in immature rats and to explore the effects of learned helplessness and depression in humans. Three questions will be asked of rats: 1) What are the effects of response-independent electric shock delivered to weanling rats on their adult behavior: shock escape, cold water escape, aggression, appetitive discrimination learning, frustration, choice, sexual behavior, and fear? 2) in adults, prior escapable shock immunizes against the effects of inescapable shock, and subsequently putting animals through the escape response breaks up the effects of inescapable shock. Will such immunization and therapy given to weanling rats undo the effects of inescapable trauma? 3) How are the effects of inescapable shock transmitted across generations of rats? The offspring of adult female rats given inescapable shock before pregnancy show disrupted open field and escape behavior. Cross-fostering will be carried out to determine if the disruption is transmitted by rearing or by unknown physiological factors. In addition, immunization and therapy will be carried out on the mothers to determine if such psychological procedures prevent inescapability from disrupting behavior in the next generation. Learned helplessness has been proposed as a laboratory model of depression in man. To test the model two additional questions are investigated with humans. 4) What are the effects of uncontrollable events on a variety of behavior perception of reinforcement, competition and cooperation, affiliation, aggressiveness, self-punishment, self-concept, assertiveness, non-verbal communication, choice, distraction, spatial localization? 5) What are the effects of depression on these same sets of behaviors. To the extent that depression and uncontrollability produce similar or dissimilar deficits over these behaviors, the learned helplessness model is confirmed or disconfirmed.